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The Espresso Network is a base layer purpose-built to provide rollups and app-specific chains with fast finality and secure crosschain composability. It operates as a decentralized consensus protocol (Layer 1) able to confirm rollup blocks in a few seconds, providing order consistency and data availability, but without executing transactions itself.

The infrastructure is designed to address the fragmentation across blockchain platforms by providing real-time communication between chains, enabling unified liquidity and seamless interoperability for payments and other crosschain activities.

Espresso’s tech is based on an original R&D effort to create the fastest possible decentralized protocol for transaction confirmations, including development of a new open source consensus protocol, HotShot (a proof-of-stake variant of HotStuff), and a technique called verifiable information dispersal (VID) for scalable data availability. Espresso currently supports 5+ MB/s throughput with transaction finality in seconds (with upgrades planned targeting 25 MB/s throughput and subsecond finality in 2026).

Espresso

Allora

Brevis

Limitless

Theoriq

Irys is a Layer 1 datachain that unifies onchain data storage and smart contract execution into a single network. Traditional smart contract chains handle financial transactions but lack native primitives for working with data at scale. Traditional datachains handle storage but lack integration with smart contracts. Irys serves both. Irys bridges this gap by unifying storage and execution, making data programmable through IrysVM, its native EVM execution layer.

The network offers flexible storage options: users can choose between term storage (temporary, duration-based) or permanent storage (one-time payment for perpetual retention). Both operate at at-cost pricing, made possible by Irys's multi-revenue model that combines storage fees, execution fees, and programmable data transactions. This design allows Irys to remain competitive on price while maintaining economic sustainability.

Irys achieves instant data retrieval and infinite horizontal scaling. As demand grows, the network expands capacity by adding validators who prove continuous maintenance of their assigned data partitions.

Irys

zkPass

FIGHT

APRO

Superform

Fabric Protocol

Turtle

Folks Finance

Newton Protocol is the decentralized policy layer that makes onchain compliance verifiable, programmable, and automatic. Builders define how digital assets can move by setting rules that check every transaction for things like sanctions, identity, or risk before it goes through.

By turning compliance into code, Newton Protocol replaces manual reviews with real-time, upgradeable enforcement. Financial institutions, stablecoin issuers, RWA platforms, and AI agents can now meet evolving regulatory requirements directly at the point of transaction without giving up transparency, privacy, or decentralization.

Builder defined rules, called policies, use both onchain and offchain data to decide whether a transaction should be approved or blocked. A decentralized network of operators, secured through Ethereum restaking and NEWT, evaluates each policy inside Trusted Execution Environments (TEEs) and generates proofs to show the checks were done correctly. The results can be verified by anyone through the Newton Explorer.

NEWT is the native utility token and is used for:

*Fees for compliance compute.
*Rewards for network operators and delegated staking.
*Governance votes that shape the protocol.

Newton Protocol

Humidifi

Boundless is a universal protocol designed to provide every blockchain with the power of ZK. It enables independent prover nodes to generate ZK proofs on behalf of layer 1’s, applications, rollups, and infrastructure across all chains. By offloading computation to the Boundless network and verifying proofs onchain, Boundless provides a consistent scalability and interoperability layer without requiring changes to existing networks.

Boundless was founded in 2022 by RISC Zero, the team behind the first RISC-V general-purpose zero-knowledge virtual machine (zkVM). Boundless was built to address a core limitation of current blockchains: every node must re-execute every transaction, meaning throughput is limited to the slowest node in the network. By verifying proofs instead of re-executing transactions, Boundless shifts blockchains from duplicated execution to proof-based verification, dramatically increasing capacity.

By separating execution from consensus, Boundless introduces a new architectural layer for the blockchain ecosystem - one that scales capacity, strengthens interoperability, and acts as the backbone of ZK proving for every chain.

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